The history of panties starts with the story of bloomers. The original purpose was modesty – covering up as much of the female form as possible. As hens are to the eggs so to bloomers are to panties. Typically it is a divided garment to cover the lower part of women. The first ones were the brainchild of Elizabeth Miller but Amelia Bloomer made it popular during the 1850’s. These were long baggy pants ending at the ankles. It was largely influenced by the East and often came to be called the ‘Syrian’ style. In the late 18th century the bloomers got two other nametags – knickers and knickerbockers. Women wore it during sports events during those days of Victorian modesty. From the 1920’s bloomers began to get short. For a classic visual of bloomers the best bet is to watch the bloomer-dance in the Hollywood classic ‘Seven Brides for Seven Brothers’ where the delightful brides prance around bloomers, the ancestors of panties!

The post-war period saw an outburst or outrage of female modesty dominated by the bra-panty culture. Somehow freedom for women and women’s right became mixed up with exposure of the exquisite female form, leaving little to the imagination. Some interpreted it as a hidden fear and doubt about the natural appeal of the female towards the opposite sex, as Nature meant it to be. Hence the urgency to establish and advertise it aggressively! Another explanation is that the post-war period saw a boom in business and advertising. The least amount of material was turned into a costly piece of garment. The gullible public swallowed the bait and the undergarment made its dominating presence felt – often to the point of ridicule and invasion of human decency and privacy.
Today more than a piece of clothing that covers and comforts the panty has become an object of sexuality. But is the operation table, with the spread-eagled human form, the alpha of sensuality? Sex is something far more – deep and sensual – than mere exposure of the beast in the urban jungle.

From the 1920’s the hemline of skirts began to rise and importance came to be given from what peeped out from under it. The original panties were made from silk or artificial silk called rayon. After that nylon came to be use. Skin problems and other related headaches is causing a rethinking and going back to cotton. This is however turning out to be a costly affair.
The panty started its journey with the original purpose of covering the intimate part of a woman even she suddenly fell or jumped about. It spelt freedom from prowling eyes. The panty covers the mysterious deep junction between the legs. Eminent sociologist Margaret Mead says that the maleness and femaleness is inherent and woven into the fabric of our body as well as mind from childhood. It is genetically programmed. Mead points out that when a baby girl falls she spontaneously brings together her hands in front below the stomach. Whereas when a boy falls he spreads his arms across on both sides. Everything in woman is inside. Everything in man is outside.

Apart from the modesty factor the panty protects the woman from infections while she goes about her work in this modern world. The panty material should be able to breathe – otherwise it will itself be a source of trouble. Moreover the panty should be washed daily and should definitely not be shared on grounds of long-term health and hygiene.

The panty culture has developed a language of its own and one of the terms is panty-line or visible-panty-line (VPL). It is the provocative outline of the undergarment teasing through the outer clothing. The Panty-line also came to be known as the bikini-line. Of late there is very little difference between the bikini and the panty. Womankind is somehow holding onto a wisp of cloth to save her modesty and her civilization.

Pantyhose is another name in the panty business. These are sheers of extremely close fittings covering the body from the waist and reaching down to the feet. These resemble stockings and are made from nylon. It made its entry in USA during the 1960’s as an alternative to stockings. It is not necessary to wear any other undergarment below it. In UK these are termed ‘tights’ but with a variation in meaning. It need not be tight fighting but can be made from any stretchable material like spandex. Usually women wear it during physical exercises. In the tropical countries the entry of panties has been fairly recent. Overnight it has led to a market boom. But the panty does not go with the stifling humid sweaty climate of the tropics where the body needs to be aired as long as possible. It has led to a rise in hitherto unknown skin problems – this being a boon for pharmaceutical business.

A whole culture, for good or bad, has come to revolve round the panty. Much to the agony of health addict regular sales of second hand panties are becoming quite common. It is not unknown that even after vigorous washing; items of clothing do not become totally free from germs and vermin. There is a regular auction of panties and other items of undergarments worn by celebrities like Marylyn Monroe. It depends on one’s bent of mind whether to shudder or to cheer at such displays of civilized mankind.

In a recent online news it was reported that at Stansted Airport a 29 year old man hit the headlines as the panty-thief! He was the baggage handler at the airport and admitted to stealing panties. His colleagues saw him searching and removing these delightful items from passenger’s luggage. Three hundred pairs were carefully stored in his home. He was given an 18-month sentence with a fine. The sentence was relatively lenient as the motive was not greed but psychological. Society seems to be beginning to pay for allowing a free hand to greedy manufacturers and their partners – the media gangs.

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Throughout its history, man has found a wide range of purpose for the use of jewelry.  What started as a simple form of adornment to the body became symbols of wealth, power and authority.  Not only that, in some cultures, jewelry was seen as a symbol of prowess in battle and also served as protection from evil.The earliest artifacts of jewelry were found in Cro-Magnon dwellings dating to around 40,000 years ago.  These forms of jewelry were crudely made and were crafted from shells, bones, sinew, mammoth tusks and mother of pearl.

The art of making jewelry started gaining refinement by the heyday of the Mesopotamian kingdoms.  Artifacts have proven that both men and women in Assyria wore jewelry extensively.  The same goes for the Egyptians.  In Egypt, however, jewelry became a symbol of power, worn only by the pharaohs, the nobility and the rich.

By the time of the Greeks, the use of jewelry became centered on women; men only wore signet rings and brooches to hold their clothes.  Jewelry was seldom worn except on special occasions and on public appearances.  Women wore jewelry as a display of their wealth and social status and as an enhancement to personal beauty.  Jewelry was also used to protect its wearer from the so-called Evil Eye.  The Grecian example was followed by the Romans.

During the Middle Ages, three peoples became renown for their style of jewelry making.  The Celts were distinct for their use of continuous and stylized patterns, while the Merovingians excelled in crafted stylized animals.  The jewelers of Byzantine, on the other hand, made frequent use of gold leaf to emphasize the setting of precious stones.

The Renaissance period and the Age of Exploration brought jewelry making to new horizons, with the importation of gold and a wide variety of precious gems as well as the exposure of jewelers to other cultures.  Working on gemstones became the focus of jewelry-making.

In the 18th century, many trends were seen in the making and wearing of jewelry.  Parures, or sets of matching pieces of jewels, became highly desired among wealthy and high-ranking ladies after their introduction during the Napoleonic era.  Jet jewelry as mourning jewelry was also popularized by Queen Victoria; she wore such pieces when mourning for her consort, Prince Albert.  It was also around this time that Charles Lewis Tiffany formed the now-famous Tiffany & Co., one of the world’s foremost authorities on diamond jewelry.

While wearing jewelry is still as much the domain of women now as it is then, wearing jewelry in men is becoming more and more popular nowadays.  The designs, styles and ways of making jewelry are now more extensive and varied.  But one thing remains unchanged throughout the years: wearing and owning jewelry is still a symbol of wealth and status.

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Some of the prominent Disco performers were Donna Summer, The Jackson Five, Barry White, The Bee Gees and Abba. Films like Saturday Night Fever and Thank God Its Friday made disco theque more popular than ever before. During the 1980’s although the popularity of Disco music began to wane off it left its genre music on the dance music that followed – House and Techno. 
The name Disco was not introduced until an article of September 1973 in a magazine – Rolling Stone Magazine, was given the title “[[Discotheque]] Rock 72: Paaaaarty!”  But Disco was born much earlier in the late 1960’s when Jerry Butler’s haunting melody was the first case of a combination of music with dance. This particular song brought about the marriage between Philly and New York soul – both being evolutions of Motown Sound. The Philly sound is lavish percussion. 1972 Soul Makasso is said to be one of the first disco songs. 
It was the Bee Gees who came to represent real Disco theque. The group till then was famous for their ballads and pop songs challenging the supremacy of The Beatles. Their success numbers were released again on the Saturday Night Fever movie soundtrack.
Disco spread to Europe through the jivings of Abba from the mid seventies. Boney-M was another group of four West Indian singers cum dancers who guided by West German record producer Frank Farian, soon became a great hit in Canada and Japan. 
The latter half of the seventies saw clubs reverberating with Disco music. The culture centered on discotheques, nightclubs, and private parties where DJ’s played disco hits through power sound systems. Long single records kept people dancing throughout the night. Even some of the most prestigious clubs matched their lighting arrangements to swish to the beat of Disco theque. Dancing schools sprung up in some cities and candidates were taught how to ‘touch dance’, ‘hustle’ and ‘cha cha’. Disco fashions then hit the market with Halston dresses for women, shiny Qiana shirts for men – pointed collars and open at the chest worn with double knit jacket suits. Disco culture soon became a shelter for those on the fringes of society – they found a way to express themselves. 
Critics dubbed Disco as hedonistic following the introduction of drug subculture to the Disco theque scene. Moral degeneration set in with public sex. It was a sort of revolt against a hypocritical society. Famous disco bars were cocaine filled celeb hangouts such as Manhattan’s Studio 54, Loft, Paradise Garage and Aux Puces.
Disco reached its height of popularity during the mid seventies. Many of the numbers recorded were not strictly disco but an admixture of pop and rock. Even the Rolling Stones tried their talents with a little bit of disco. But nobody could equal The Bee Gees. John Travolta’s career was zoomed with the move “Saturday Night fever”. This was the first instance ever that the soundtrack was released even before the film. The first song was “How Deep is your Love.” Soon several parodies rushed into the market. 
Disco sound is mainly based on strings and horns accompanied by reverberating vocals mixing with electric pianos and chicken-scratch guitars. Dramatic minor and major seventh chords dominate disco music. The other instruments in used are bass guitar, piano, string synth with electrocoustic keyboards. There are drum kits and electronic drums together with harp, violin, viola, trumpet, saxophone, trombone, clarinet, flugelhorn, French horn, tuba, English horn, oboe, flute and piccolo. The songs usually have a steady four-on-the floor beat. It has affinity with Dominican meringue, rumba, samba and cha-cha-cha rhythms. A synthesizer is sometimes used to replace the bass guitar.
Mainstream disco branched off into regional styles during the mid seventies by many formal musicians. Keeping the same broad traits of disco the new types came to get an individual stamp of the singer and the orchestra. Notable among them were The Philadelphia Symphony Orchestra and New York Philharmonic. Disco thus came to be arranged and composed by experienced arrangers and orchestrators. It required large number of instruments and a team, which included the conductor, copyists, record producers and mixing engineer. Disco songs used as many as 64 tracks of vocals and instrumentals. Mixing engineers thus had a very important role. They created a distinctive sounding known as disco-mix. DJ’s were important for popularizing disco and consequently its sales.
After several years of popularity rock music began to gain on disco. Disco music and fans were branded as silly and effeminate. Sexual promiscuity and drug abuse came to be strongly frowned upon.  Others were put off by the exclusivity of the disco atmosphere where only the typically dressed were allowed in. There were cries against music centering on drums and synthesizers instead of live performers. Rock fans accused disco for representing all that was synthetic, fake and elitist while they stood for all that was earthy and real. Disco seemed to favor black women divas, gay males and anything alternative. Matters got complicated with rock music absorbing a lot of disco music. It was musical fusion. The emergence of punk and New wave spelt doom for disco. This backlash against disco took place mainly in US and not in UK or Europe where it continued to hold sway for a longer period. Music historians say that disco died on 12th July 1979 when an anti-disco demonstration was held in Chicago. ‘Disco Demolition Night’ was staged when disco records were destroyed and riots broke out. It took on the hues of war between blacks and whites. During the early 80’s disco sound began to be phased out giving way to funk and pop genres. Complicated Melodic structure and orchestration of dance music came to be dropped. 
In 1990’s discos started to make a comeback – the original variety. It continued to 2000 with songs as Kylie Minogue’s Spinning Around. The last words on Disco have not been written as yet.  

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Origin of Disco
Does Disco sound something of the past? Well it isn’t a very old form of music and dance. Back in the late 1960s, disco originated as a combination of many instruments played together. It was in 1969 when Jerry Butler released his latest song ‘Only the Strong Survive’ that we got our very first disco song. This was the birth of disco but then it was a form of music which hadn’t been named. Four years and many songs later on the 13th of September 1973, Vince Aletti wrote an article, which gave this music form its name ‘DISCO.’
This soulful music is based on a number of instruments blended together to get what is known as the disco sound. The vocals are played on a steady four on the floor beat or what is known as a quaver (eighth note) or a semi- quaver (sixteenth note). Many electronic musical gadgets are used to create the background score. This form of music has more of electric bass line and the guitar is seldom used as a lead instrument.

Culture
Different instruments and the disco sounds made their way into the hearts of people in a big way. Soon to follow were the discotheques. Discos’ became a place where there would be loud disco music, a well lit dance floor with disco lights and of course you disco lovers dressed in the latest disco outfits having a blast of a life time.
Discos’ have a culture of their own. The music is loud enough to make you and your heart beat a little faster. The lights keep changing colors and also help in changing you moods and shedding any inhibition you have. The clothes too are tight fitting to show off your well toned bodies. Shirts with slightly long and pointy collars, the Qiana shirts for the gents and the Halston dresses for women were in fashion.

Disco Groups
In the 1970s and 80s disco and dance came together and were the craze of the time. Groups like The Jackson Five, ABBA and The BEE GEES are still bands which are famous for their great disco music and superb lyrics. Most of these albums have even been remixed and launched again for the benefit of the latest generation.
Disco, which was performed only by a few bands in the beginning spread like a forest fire. Soon disco became mainstream and all kinds of bands were performing disco numbers. Disco was the in thing and a lot of movies were made on the disco theme too. Saturday night fever starring John Travolta and Thank God It’s Friday were two big hits with disco as its mainstream idea.
ABBA was a group, which took Disco beyond the borders of America and right into Europe and Asia. The songs were such big chart busters that all over the world they created many new records. Boney M a group of four West Indian singers were another group, which broke the barriers of caste, color and creed to give pure and outstanding disco music. Dalida released their hit number “J’attendrai” which topped the charts in Japan, middle and south Asia and Canada.

Addictions
Discos’ brought in many other cultures too. One of the main addictions that disco brought in was drugs. Cocaine and Quaalude became the main drugs for all disco lovers. While cocaine gave them a high spirit, it helped many to enjoy the loud music better. Quaalude made them feel light like jelly and helped them to move to the groove.
The dance lovers enjoyed the discotheques, as there was music, dance, alcohol and fun. Discos became very popular and some of them became as popular as tourist sites too. Manhattans Studio 54 is one such place. You can’t afford to miss this hangout, as you can see many celebrities and people who are both rich and famous enjoying there.

Ups & Downs in Disco
The growing craze for disco angered the fans of rock music. While some just threw out all disco records, a few took drastic steps. DJs of rock music held events like the Disco Demolition night. Many groups came together to stage anti-disco demonstrations. Slowly but steadily in the 1980s disco began to die down. Though disco kind of became obsolete but it was still very much a part of the night life in Europe.  With newer forms of music and even newer groups emerging Disco was given a back seat.
In 1990s and 2000 once again disco began gaining popularity again. With major singers like Madonna, Kate Ryan and Suzanne Palmer performing Disco, the time for the return of Disco is here.

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Most piercing of primitive societies is done to signify their status within a tribe, a rite of passage, or as a talisman to chase bad spirits away. Nowadays, in spite of the vast difference between cultures and beliefs, us having easy access to the latest technology, still rely on piercing to fulfill ourselves as social animals for the continuity of a certain way of life. The increase in piercing and tattooing popularity is a response to the disposable mentality of fashion and consumerism.

Body piercing was pioneered in the UK by Alex Sebastian. In the 1950’s, while working in his field, he came across a couple of helpers who had gold rings in their nipples. Since he was curious about it, he began to ask around and was introduced to a local man who did some piercing. He tried having the piercing and it healed. When he returned to England, he tried some other piercing on himself. Soon enough, people got curious as to where he was able to get those piercings and asked if he would be willing to do it for them. This became the start of his career as one of the country’s first and most respected body piercers.

Among the ancient Egyptians, to get a piercing in your navel is equivalent to being royalty. This is why commoners are not allowed to get pierced. Prince Albert was reported to have a piercing through his penis, also called a dress ring by Victorian haberdashers since this is originally done to firmly place the penis in place by either the left of right trouser leg. It was because of the craze for extremely tight trousers that Prince Albert was rumored to pierce his penis. Other piercings of the male genitalia is used as a means of discipline. Arab youths have a piercing on the left side of their scrotum which is believed to prevent the testis from returning the body. This practice also came from North Africa. Female genital piercings developed later and is used for erotic stimulation although in some African tribes, it is also used as a form of discipline. Nowadays, it is used for erotic stimulation.

Most tribal cultures employ the piercing of the ear lobe and ear rim with ear lob stretching see among the people of Northern India, Burma, ancient Egypt, and other African tribes. Ivory ear plugs are also used by the African Samburu warrior and the Masai and Pokot tribes wear many rigns in their stretched earlobes.

Girls from the African Dogon, Kudi, and Lobi tribes get to have ear, nose and lip piercings to enable them to wear ornaments which will identify their tribe and protect them from bad spirits. In India, nose rings are the trend which became popular among the mughals, indicating whether the man or woman is single or married. African Pokot girls wear lip plugs when they are married, which is also done by Turkama men and women. Lip plugs are also worn by some men of the Amazonian tribe to show their status wherein the elders have bigger plugs or plates every year.

Nunivak tribes of North America wear lip or labret piercings while silver jewelry was worn in the septums of the Clayoquot tribes to denote status. Other septum piercings, gilded with plant stems and bone jewelry are worn by tribesmen of Papua New Guinea. Piercing located in the eyebrow, tongue and ear are modern practices developed in the west.

Nowadays, people are becoming more aware of tribal societies that still exist in their culture and who still practice their distinct customs and traditions. They would like to apply what they have learned about these societies by the rituals they perform like tattooing and piercing. Unfortunately, although piercing is become more popular in the west, the third world countries are slowly forgetting their own ancient tribal customs to be able to take on western standards.

Two main schools of thought have been discussed on to how modern body piercing came about. The US version recognizes the contributions of Doug Malloy and Jim Ward in the field of body piercing while the version of the United Kingdom recognizes Mr. Sebastian. The three have documented the development of piercing and its expansion from the homosexual and sadomasochistic communities in the US. In the United Kingdom, piercing was originally exclusive to various fringe groups, such as the punks, the travelers, and members of the sadomasochistic scene although they are not the only ones who practice body piercing.

Three to four years ago, a sudden change happened in the nature of body piercing, caused by several factors but most significantly, the adapting of navel and eyebrow piercing by the fashion world. Because the use of these piercings are made public on British television, it dictated to the general public that piercing is fashionable. Secondly, it opened the possibility of going to extremes with body piercing, as opposed to fashion. And thirdly, those who have been practicing piercing on their body for several years have become aware that the practice of body piercing is already widespread.

Before undertaking this procedure, there are just a few suggestions to remember. Make sure that the tattoo artist you go to is reputable and clean. His instruments should be sterilized properly so as to lower the risk of infection. And, as with any procedure concerning the body, make sure that other safety precautions are made before you push through with the piercing.

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SEVEN SISTERS

The seven north-eastern states of India are collectively referred to as Seven Sister States (Sikkim is not counted in Seven Sisters). The north-east region is known for its culture, handicrafts, martial arts, and scenic beauty.

Assam’s history can be found in Tantric literature, Assamese folklore, Vedic literature, and Buddhist literature. Assam is mentioned in epics like Mahabharata as it was inhabited by Aryans belonging to warrior and priestly classes who migrated to Assam very early. The first known ruler of Assam was Mahiranga Danava of Danava dynasty. He was succeeded by Hatakasur, Sambarsur, and Ratnasur. Ghatakasur, the ruler of Kiratas, succeeded Ratnasur and made Progjyotishpur, now known as Guwahati, his capital. It was under him that numerous Brahmans settled down at Kamakhya. Lord Krishna appears in the mythology of Assam. Narkasur was killed by Lord Krishna. To avenge his death Narakasur’s successor, Bhagadatta, led a vast army against the Pandavas in the Mahabharta war. Lord Krishna also fought against King Bhismaka of Kundil (present Sadia) as he wanted to marry Bhismaka’s daughter Rukmini. King Banasura of Sonitpur (now Tezpur) also fought against Lord Krishna when he came to know that his daughter Usha was secretly married to the grandson of lord Krishna, Anirudh.

Political History

In historical context, the first king to rule over Kamrupa was Pushya Varman (350-380 AD). He was a contemporary of Samudragupta who ruled from 350-375 AD. Pushya Varman was given the title of Maharajadhiraj. Mahendra Varman, a descendant of Pushya Varman, became the first Varman king to perform an Ashwamedha Yagya and the first king of Kamrupa to defeat the Gupta army. The Varman dynasty was at its peak under the rule of Bhaskar Varman (594-650 AD) and during his reign a new era of Assam’s history started. The dynasty of Varman kings ended with Bhaskar Varman.

After the Varman dynasty, the Salasthambha dynasty was the next to rule Assam. The dynasty is named after the first chieftain to rule Assam called Salasthambha. Shri Harshadeva of the Salasthambha dynasty who ruled between 725 AD and 750 AD is considered to be a good king of the dynasty. Tyaga Singha (970-990 AD) was the last king of the dynasty. Brahmapala, the first king of Pala dynasty, ruled Assam between 970 and 990 AD. Jayapala was the last ruler of this dynasty.

During the rule of king Prithu the first invasion of Kamrupa took place in 1206 AD. Prithu died in a battle with Illtutmish’s son Nassiruddin in 1228 AD. The capital ‘Kamrup Nagar’ was transferred to Kamatapur around 1257 AD by the then ruler of Assam, Saindhya (1250-1270 AD), when Assam was attacked by Ikhtiyaruddin Yuzbak or Tughril Khan. Since that time onwards Kamata’s ruler was called Kamateshwar.

In the later part of the 14^th century, Gaur (the northern part of former Kamatapur), was ruled by Arimatta who had Vaidyagar as his capital. The first Muslims settled in 15^th century after the invasion by Mughals.

Chutia Kingdom

The Ahoms established their rule over Assam in the early part of the 13^th century and had Sibsagar as their capital. During that time the Sovansiri region and the region close to the banks of the Disang River was under the control of the Chutias. According to legend the Chutia kingdom was annexed by Ahom king Dihingia Raja.

Barobhuyans

Barobhuyans occupied area east of Kamrup area. Bhuyans were petty chiefs and the title of ‘Baro’ was given as a title of honor to the twelve chieftains who established small kingdoms even though they were not kings themselves. The Barobhuyans took up arms against the Ahoms only to be crushed by the Ahom king Pratap Singha.

Koch Kingdom

In the early part of the 16^th century the foundation of the Koch dominion was laid by Bishwa Singha (1515-1540 AD), who established Cooch in Bihar as his capital. Bishwa Singha was succeeded by his son Malladeva (known as Naranarayana). Naranarayana’s rule was the most glorious period for the Koch kingdom. The Ahoms suffered defeat during his period and the kingdom was expanded by conquering Kachari kingdom, Manipur, Tripura, Jayantia, and Srihatta. During the battle with the Nawab of Gour, Naranarayana was attacked by small-pox and died on the banks of Ganges in 1584. During his reign the Koch kingdom reached its peak and the Assamese culture and literature flourished. After his death the Koch kingdom started declining and was annexed to the Mughal Empire in 1615.

Kachari Kingdom

The Kacharis are supposed to be descendants of Ghatotkacha, son of Bhima. The Kacharis, an ancient race of Assam, came to power in early 13^th century. Jashanarayan, Pratapnarayan, Jamradwaj, and Govindchandra were notable kings of Kachari kingdom. The Kacharis were forced to surrender their capital Hidimbapur (know now as Dimapur) and the areas adjoining it to the Ahoms near the end of the 15^th century. The last Kachari king was Gobind Chandra (1813-1830).

Jayantia Kingdom

Jayantias established their kingdom in and around Jayantia hills. Dhanamanik and Jashamanik were noteworthy kings of this kingdom. The Jayantia kingdom forged matrimonial alliance with the Ahoms. Jayantias fought along with Ahoms when they were invaded by Mughals. Jahomatta Rai, a contemporary of the Ahom king Nariya Raja (1644-1648 AD), claimed the regions Dimorja, Gobha, Nellie and Khola. This led to souring of relations between the Jayantias and the Ahoms. After the rule of Bijanarayan the Jayantia kingdom along with the Ahom kingdom passed into the hands of the British.

Ahom Rule

The Ahom rule started in the 13^th century when the first Ahom king, Sukafa, then prince of Monlung of upper Burma (present Myanmar) settled in the Patkai Mountains with his supporters. He entered Assam through Naga Kingdom and set up his capital at Charaideo in 1253. The foundation for the 600 year Ahom rule was laid by Sukafa. After Sukafa’s death in 1268 AD his son Suseupha (1268-1281) succeeded him and expanded the kingdom’s boundary to include the area adjacent to Dikhow River. During Sudangpha’s rule (1397-1407 AD) the influence of Brahmins increased in Ahoms. During his reign a war between Ahoms and Tipams started which was later concluded peacefully.

The period between 1497 and 1539 AD when Suhungmung ruled is considered as the golden era in the 600 years of the Ahom rule. Suhungmung took the Hindi name Swarganarayan. After he shifted the Ahom capital to Bokota near Dihing River he popularly came to be known as Dihingia Raja. He took over the Chutia and the Kachari territories and brought them under Ahom rule. The first ever census took place under him. The Mughals invaded thrice during his reign but were defeated each and every time. The Ahoms used to rely on traditional methods of warfare like bow, arrows, and swords but due to the invasions the Ahoms came to know the use of gunpowder. Swarganarayan was killed in 1539 AD by his servant as a result of a conspiracy hatched by his son Suklengmung who ruled between 1539 and 1552 AD. After becoming king Suklengmung shifted from Bokota to Gargoan. Many battles took place between Ahoms and the Koch during his reign. A pond ‘Gargaon Pukhuri’ was dug and a road called ‘Naga Ali’ was constructed under his supervision.

In 1603 AD Susengpha, who took the name of Pratap Singha, became king. During his rule the war between the Mughals and Ahoms escalated but Pratap Singha was able to ward off the Mughals. He also extended the boundaries of the state and tried to improve the life of his citizens. He introduced a common rayat system known as Pyke under which people were divided into groups of 1000, 100 and 20 and posts of officials were created by him to look after them called Hazarika, Saikia and Bora. He is also credited with the creation of other posts such as Barua, Jagiyal Gohain, and Rohiyal. He is known as ‘Buddhi Swarganarayan’ due to his great wisdom, organizational capability and political acumen.

Chakradhvaj Singha ruled between 1663 and 1669 AD. To fight the Mughals he asked Lachit Barphukan, son of Momaj Tamuli Barbaruah, for help. The Ahoms conquered Guwahati and Pandu under the brilliant leadership of Lachit Barphukan. When Aurangzeb heard the news of defeat at the hand of Ahoms, he ordered Ramsingh to attack the Ahom kingdom immediately with a large force. The Mughals suffered a humiliating loss in the battle that took place between Ahoms and the Mughals at Saraighat in 1671. After the war the Manas River in the west became a demarcation line between the Ahom and the Mughal territories till 1826 when the British came.

Gadapani assumed the Hindi name Gadadhar Singha and ruled between 1681 and 1696 AD. He successfully waged a war known as Itakhulir Rann (war of Itakhuli) against the Mughals to recapture Guwahati from the Mughals. He built a road named ‘Dhodar Ali’ near Golaghat and a temple, ‘Umananda Devaloi’, at Guwahati. Lai, eldest son of Gadadhat Singha, was next to become king. He took on the Hindu name Rudra Singha and the Ahom name Sukrumpha and reigned from 1696 AD to 1714 AD. He constructed the Joysagar Tank as a mark of respect for his mother Joymoti. He also build a stone bridge over the Namdang River known as Kareng Ghar along with Metaka Ali, Kharikatia Ali. Royal patronage to ‘Bihu’ was given by him.

Rudra Singha’ son Sutaanpha (1714-1744 AD) had the Hindu name of Siva Singha. He was initiated in the creed of the Shakti cult by Krishnaram Bhattacharya and became a Shakti worshipper. Krishnaram Bhattacharya was later appointed as the head priest of Kamakhya temple situated at the top of Nilanchal Hills. Siva Singha had immense faith in astrologers and when he was told by an astrologer that he could be dethroned, Siva Singha installed his Queen Phuleshwari at the throne. She took the name Pramateswari. She was also a Shakti worshipper albeit orthodox one. She forced the Moamoria Mahants to take the Prasad of Durga worship and forcibly smeared sacrifical blood on their foreheads. These atrocities resulted in the Moamoria rebellion. Siva Singha married Phuleswari’s sister Drupadi after her death in 1731. She was put on the throne by Siva Singha under the name of Ambika. She constructed the highest Shiva temple in Assam, the Shiva Dol at Sibsagar. At the same place ‘Dhai Ali’ was constructed. Phuleshwari asked the Gauri Sagar tank to be dug and the Sibsagar tank was dug at the instruction of Ambika.

The British Rule

The people of Assam had suffered a lot due to the invasion by Burma (now Myanmar), Moamoria rebellion, and the fall of the Ahom kingdom. They misunderstood the intentions of the British and welcomed them not knowing their real purpose. The British wanted to annex Assam and add it to the British Empire which consisted of almost whole India. The posts under the Pyke system were filled up with people of non-Assamese origin. The people in general and the intellectuals in particular were unhappy with this decision and plans were set in motion to overthrow the British rule.

The first major revolt against the British rule was started in 1828 by Gumadhar Konwar and Dhananjay Borgohain. Gumadhar was sentenced to seven years of imprisonment and Dhananjay was ordered to be hanged. Dhananjay fled to the Matak kingdom and made secret plans to attack Rangpur with the help of his sons Harakanta and Haranath, son-in-law Jeuram Dulia Baruah and other people. Before the plan could be executed the British were informed of the plans by Sadiya Khowa who wanted to prove his loyalty to the British Empire by doing so. Jeuram Dulia Baruah and Piyoli Barphukan were executed in 1830 and the rest were expelled from the country. Hence Assam along with Khamtis, Singhpho, Matak, Kachari, Naga, Garo, Luchai was added to the British Empire.

The British introduced Bengali as the medium of instruction in 1837 so that the linguistic freedom of the natives could be suppressed but due to efforts by American Baptist Missionaries and Assamese personalities like Hemchandra Baruah and Gunabhiram Bharuah Assamese was made medium of instruction in 1873. Sarbjanik Sabha was formed at Jorhat by Jagannath Baruah in 1884. Assam Chatra Sanmilan was formed in 1916 and Assam Sahitya Sabha in 1917. Assam Association, formed by Manik Chandra Baruah, joined the Assam branch of Indian National Congress.

Assam took part in the non-cooperation movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi along with the rest of country. At the second session of the Indian National Congress held at Calcutta Assam was represented by Bipin Chandra Pal, Satyanath Baruah, Debi Chandra Baruah, Kamini Kumar Chandra. The year 1912 is an important year as in this year Mahatma Gandhi visited Assam, Assam Bengal train service and steamer companies went on strike and after 63 years Assam came under the rule of Governor which lasted till 1936. Assam took part in the Civil Disobedience Movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi in 1930 along with the rest of the country. Self governance was introduced in Assam in 1935. People of Assam took part in the Quit India Movement of 1942.

When India gained its independence in 1947 the people of Assam won control of their state assembly and started a campaign to reaffirm the dominance of Assamese culture in the region and provide more employment opportunities for native Assamese. Due to this some tribal areas were alienated. These tribal areas started demanding independence from India. The Indian Government partitioned the former Assam into the tribal states of Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh.

Following the Pakistan civil was in 1971; nearly two million Bengali Muslim refugees migrated to Assam. Their illegal settlement and then their electoral support for Indira Gandhi’s Congress government further aggravated Assamese fears of Bengali cultural domination and central government ambitions to undermine Assamese regional autonomy.

Disputes started over the issue of illegal immigrants from Bangladesh and elsewhere. The student unions and the political parties of Assam wanted to safeguard the interest of the native people of Assam. The Indian Government and the state government used brute force to crush the peaceful demonstration. Many demonstrators were killed due to this action of the government. Due to this worst communal violence since partition broke out near the end of the movement.

The Government of India signed a treaty with the people of Assam in 1985. Asom Gana Parishad party came to power after elections were held in the state. In the 1990′s military groups like ULFA, The United Liberation Front of Assam started demanding independence of Assam from the Central government. These groups do not hesitate to use force and resort to violence to make their point. The government increased the presence of the military forces in the region to curb these separatist outfits. The Army has been accused by the local people of violating human rights.

Arunachal Pradesh

Arunachal Pradesh was part of the North East Frontier Agency. It became a Union Territory before becoming a full fledged state on 20^th February 1987.

Tripura

Earliest mention of Tripura is found in the Ashoka pillars (3^rd century BC). In 14^th century AD it came under control of the Manikya dynasty. Mughals took control of the region in early part of the 17^th century. On 9^th September 1947 monarchy ended in Tripura. Tripura became part of India on 15 October, 1949. It became a Union Territory on 1^st November 1956 and subsequently was made a state of the Indian union on January 21, 1972.

Manipur

Manipur became a part of India in 1949. It was made a state on January 21, 1972 after becoming Union Territory for sometime.

Meghalaya

Meghalaya is home to many ancient tribes like the Khasis, Jaintias, Mikirs, and Cacharis which are supposed to be living in the region even before the start of the Christian era. The Garo Hills were occupied by the British in 1872. The British developed the roads in Meghalaya. Meghalaya was given the status of a full-fledged state on January 21, 1972.

Mizoram

The origin of Mizos is vague just like that of many other tribes hailing from the North East region. Mizo are believed to have come from Shinlung or Chhinlungsan region which is situated on the banks of the river Yalung in China.

The first Mizos who migrated to India were known as Kukis. The second batch of the immigrants were called New Kukis. The last tribe to migrate and settle down in India was that of the Lushais.

In 1895 the Mizo Hills were formally declared as a part of the British India by a proclamation. The North and the South Hills were combined into Lushai Hill district with Aizwal as it’s headquarter in 1898. Due to the influence of the British Missionaries most of the Mizos converted to Christianity.

Mizoram state was formed on 20^th February, 1987.

Nagaland

Very little is known about the ancient history of Nagaland. British started ruling the region in 1980s. A single Naga administrative unit was established by the Indian Government in 1957. The Indian Government agreed to give Nagaland self-governance in 1960 following the civil unrest in the state. In 1963 it was given full status of a state.

Sikkim

Sikkim is a very small hilly state which lies between Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan and West Bengal. Lepchas were the original inhabitants of Sikkim (Lepchas mean “ravine folk”). They came to Sikkim from Assam and Myanmar. The Bhutias belonging to Tibet moved into Sikkim in 1200′s AD. The Namgyal clan arrived in the 1400s and gradually won political control over Sikkim. Phuntsog Namgyal (1604-1670) became the Chogyal (king) in 1642. Sikkim was ruled for more than 330 years by his descendants. In the 1700′s Nepal and Bhutan carried out series of attacks on Sikkim due to which it lost much of its province. Nepalese settled in Sikkim as farmers. Sikkim backed the British in the war against Nepal (1814-1815) and won back some territory it had lost.

British East India Company got hold of the health resort of Darjeeling from Sikkim in 1835. In 1861 Sikkim became a British colony after some violent resistance. Britain and China signed an agreement which recognized the border between Sikkim and Tibet. To assist the Chogyal in running the internal and external work of the kingdom a political office was installed by the British.

In 1950 Sikkim’s external affairs, defence, and communications tasks were assumed by the Indian Government. Due to spread of democratic ideas and introduction of democratic constitution in Sikkim the Chogyals lost their power. In 1974 Sikkim became 22^nd state of India.

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