Photocopy is subject to copyright restrictions in most of the countries. For purposes of research the student is allowed to photocopy some chapters. There are some governments that charge royalty for every copy made.
Health is another issue that cannot be ignored in the matter of photocopies. Exposure to ultraviolet rays causes concern. So far, the solution is through the installing of a filtering process but the matter cannot be left lying and needs constant probing.

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Petrol or gasoline is mixture of hydrocarbons derived from crude petroleum through distillation. It is mainly used as fuel for internal combustion engines. ‘Petrol’ is used in most of the Commonwealth Countries while the term ‘Gasoline’ is basically used in North American Countries. Etymology of petrol is also quite interesting. The word ‘gasolene’ first came into existence in 1865 which was modified to the modern spelling ‘gasoline’ in 1871. Initially any other fuel other than diesel or liquefied gas which could be used in engines was termed as gasoline. The word ‘petrol’ came into existence in early 1892. Carless-Capel & Leonard, a German wholesaler, was the first company to register ‘petrol’ as a trade name. Gasoline is also known as Benzin in Germany which is derived from a chemical named Benzene. 

Petrol or gasoline is a by product of distillation of crude oil or petroleum which is complex mixture of various hydrocarbons occurring naturally. The distillation of crude petroleum to yield its various by products is credited to Muslim Chemists who were the first to distill crude oil. Crude petroleum consists of around 84% of energy rich fuels such as diesel, petrol and LPG. Petroleum is believed to be formed due to continuous compression and heating of decayed organic material which is settled at the bottom of the sea in absence of oxygen over a period of time and subjected to high pressure. Crude oil can be classified according to its place of origin or by its viscosity or relative weight or sulfur content. 

China had earned the credits for drilling the first oil wells in around 4^th Century using bamboo poles but commercial oil well was first drilled in 1858 in North America by James Miller Williams. Edwin Drake began the petroleum industry in America in 1859 by drilling a 69 ft deep oil well for Seneca Oil Company. Initially gasoline was used as cleaning liquid to remove strains. Before the evolution of filling stations, gasoline was available in cans. Gasoline is also used for lighting in the form of white gas which is highly purified petrol. In 1910 major oil fields were discovered in Canada, Iran and Mexico. By 1950’s oil took over as major fuel from the reigning coal.  

Octane rating is an important characteristic of petrol. It is an indicator of anti knocking capacity of petrol which is defined as resistance to abnormal combustion in internal combustion engines. A better octane rating means a better quality of petrol. Various additives are widely used now a days to increase the octane ratings of petrol or to act as lubricators which includes oxygenates (such as methanol, ethanol), Antiknock agents (such as Tetra-ethyl lead, Isooctane) and antioxidants (such as Butylated hydroxytoluene, Ethylene diamine). Regular gasoline with octane rating of 91 contains 34.8 MJ/L (MegaJoules/Litre) of energy. But various non-aliphatic hydrocarbons present in petrol and many anti knocking agents can cause various health and environmental issues such as air pollution which are being taken seriously all over the world. These issues have led to the inclination towards alternate fuels such as biofuels which have very less emissions as compared to various fossil fuels. Due to these environmental issues leaded petrol was banned in the year 2000. Petrol is also quite unstable as varnishes and gums are easily formed in it if left unattended for a period of time. 

Petrol has been the main reasons for the developments in car engines since last 100 years. Most of the car engines are designed according to the kind of petrol available at that time. Petrol itself has gone through a lot of changes because of the pressure of very high demand which has let to the development of various variants of petrol having a wide range of boiling points with more high and low boiling point hydrocarbons. The addition of these hydrocarbons has resulted in changes in carburetor design and fuel systems of car engines regularly.

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Different kinds of Matchsticks
There are numerous kinds of matchsticks available in the market. Foremost are the Friction matches, which were invented in the year 1827 by English chemist John Walker. The mixture of antimony sulfide, potassium chlorate, starch and gum was coated over the head of the matchstick. This kind of matchstick could be easily ignited by just striking on the hard surface.
Then the safety matches were invented, which are only ignited if stroked at specific places. They were invented in the year 1844 by Swede Gustaf Erik Pasch and almost a decade later was improved by John Edvard Lundstrom. These are regarded as safety matches only for the cause that the white phosphorous was replaced by the red phosphorous making it a little less combustible and more safe to handle.
Another of the kind is a noiseless matchstick, which was invented in the year 1836 by chemistry student Hungarian Janos Irinyi. He replaced potassium chlorate from he combustible mixture with lead dioxide and successfully formed matchsticks, which did not produce any sound while lighting and burnt evenly throughout the stick.

Origin and history of matchstick
The first matches were developed by the Egyptians in the year 3500 BC with a small stick of pinewood coated with combustible mixture of sulfur.
Then in the year 1350-1400, the term match referred to a cord or a wire that was coated with combustible chemicals. When it was brought in contact with a small amount of heat it could produce flame and be easily used to ignite other things. Previously it was used to set off the huge canons and guns. It was even used to light fires and crackers during households and celebrations.
By the year of 1805 K.Chancel, an assistant to a professor Louis Jacques Thenard, Paris invented the modern matchstick. In his invention, the head of the match was coated with potassium chlorate, sugar, sulfur and rubber. The same were ignited by means of chemical energy produced by dipping the head of the match in sulfuric acid. Cost wise these matches were a bit expensive and its usage was a bit hazardous so these kinds of matches never gained esteem and were never produced on large scale. Rather the one we use daily gained popularity and is still date used by all.

Advancement in Matchstick
Technology has gone in so details of even small comforts of life that these days instead of plain matchsticks electric matches are available which need not depend on frictional force but can be ignited by electricity itself.

Accidents due to Matchstick
It is very common that fires have broken out due to accidents caused by matchsticks. At times due to the blunder of an individual, a light or half-lighted matchstick is exposed to any combustible substance. It provokes a flame and sometimes by circumstance, the small flame engulfs everything surrounding it. Thousands die and even their have been instance of whole factory burnt by the same process. Therefore, we can always say matchsticks are blessings in disguise.

Other utilizations of Match stick
With the manufacture of matchstick, it was almost impossible to sell them individually so it was packed and sealed in small boxes, which fit their size and purpose. Therefore, the boxes developed previously were plain and simple containing their date of manufacturing and their brand name. Then with time and pace in the market, few companies became reputed brands and they started making the boxes of the matches very attractive and colorful. This caught the eye of few people who started collecting different kinds of matchboxes. It almost developed into hobby for them and still date you can find such people looking for specific company or brand match boxes to finish their collection. Such people who collect matchboxes or match labels etc are called phillumeny. Although it is a very awkward hobby but still if minutely observed actually the matchboxes are very eye-catching.
Similarly, few people show their creativity by making small pieces of artwork from matchsticks. Many matchsticks when arranged together can form specific shapes and drawings. There have been many brain storming puzzles and quizzes developed on pieces of matchsticks. Small wall pieces or pen stand are carved out of an arrangement of matchsticks are easily available in any handicraft shop and considered very artistic. Hence the matchsticks are very small things but very important to all of us.

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It would have been at least mildly interesting to perform square root extractions using Roman numerals, but it would have been a lot of pain to do. So, while zero is taken to be synonymous with the word avoid most of the time, the number zero makes our life in math more smooth and easy.

Have you ever wondered whoever invented the number zero? No one knows for sure, but as early as 2,000 BC, the Babylonians, who had been using a sexagesimal number system, had represented the value that we now assign to the number and symbol of zero by a blank space In 300 BC, the usage of blank space was replaced by the Babylonians by double-slanted wedges. This double-slanted wedge, however, was never used alone.

At perhaps the same time, the Mayans of Mesoamerica have used the figure zero in their long calendars. The Hindus, on the other hand, had developed the earliest form of the decimal system by the time and have used zero. The earliest use of the number zero was made by Pingala.

The concept of the zero spread through the Arabian nations, through North Africa and through Europe through trading. Zero was called sunyaa in Sanskrit, meaning void. When the symbol came to the Arabs, œsunya was translated into the Arabic safira.

The person generally credited to have brought the idea of zero to Europe was the mathematician and philosopher Fibonacci, the author of the mathematical concept Fibonacci’s Square. Fibonacci grew up in the Arabic North Africa. He translated the Arabic safira to zephyrum. Zephyrum became zefiro in Italian, and the Venetians further contracted the word into Zero.

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The invention of the [[typewriter]] is not credited to any particular person. Many persons contributed in the development of the typewriter. A patent for a machine similar to the typewriter was taken by Heather Mill in Britain in 1714. Pellegrino Turri, inventor of carbon paper, was one of the early developers of the typewriting machine. Most of the early typewriting machines were developed to help blind people in writing.
A machined called ‘Typographer’, sometimes referred to as the first typewriter, was patented by William Austin Burt in 1829. The machine is described by the London Science Museum as “the first writing mechanism whose invention was documented”. It was slower compared to writing in longhand. The machine was never commercially produced and Burt was unable to find a buyer for the patent. Instead of having an individual key for each character it used a dial to select the character. Due to this it was called an “index typewriter”. Though a large number of typing machines were patented between 1829 and 1870 none was commercially produced.
The first typewriter developed by Charles Thurber, who held many patents, was developed to help the blind. For the first time the typist could see what was being typed when Giuseppe Ravizza created a prototype typewriter in 1855. Brazil considers Fr. Azevedo as the real inventor of the typewriter as he made a typewriter with wood and knives in 1861.
The first typewriter to be manufactured and sold commercially was invented by Rev. Ramsus Malling-Hansen (Denmark) in 1870. It was highly successful in Europe. He used a solenoid on some models for the carriage return. Malling made porcelain model of the keyboard and to achieve greater writing speed he tried different placements of the keys. He placed the most frequently used keys in place where the fastest writing fingers struck and due to this the first typewriter to achieve writing speed more than that of writing by human hand was made. The typewriter was called Hansen Writing Ball and many improvements were made to it later.
Christopher Sholes along with Carlos Glidden and Samuel W. Soule invented the first successful commercial typewriter in 1867. The patent for this machine was sold to Densmore and Yost for $ 12,000. Densmore and Yost did an agreement with E. Remington and Sons, famous then for its sewing machines, to commercially produce it. The production for the first typewriter by Remington started on 1st March, 1873in New York. Along with Remington, Underwood was an early manufacture of the typewriter.
The foundation of the electric typewriter was laid when Thomas Edison invented Universal Stock Ticker in 1870. It was used to remotely print on a paper at one end of the telegraph line from the input received from a typewriter at the other end of the telegraph line. The first electric typewriter was produced in 1902 by the Blickensderfer Manufacturing Company. In the late 1920’s Electronic Typewriters Inc. was a company manufacturing electric typewriters. The patents, tools and the production facilities of the firm were purchased by IBM in 1933. The company invested over a million dollars in typewriter research and came up with IBM Model 01, the first successful electric typewriter.
In today’s world typewriters have been replaced by inexpensive personal computers which have the advantage of having word processing software and can be used with a variety of printers available.

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The issues concerning sexually transmitted diseases and preventing conception in women have been around for far longer than we may actually know.  Although it is disputed whether they were used for sexual purposes or for religious rituals, condoms have been depicted in ancient Egyptian drawings dating as early as three thousand years ago.  This, without a doubt, makes condoms the earliest form of contraceptives developed by man.The first documentation, however, of what can be said to be the precursor of the modern condom is found among the writings of Gabriele Falloppio, a Renaissance anatomist and physician for whom the Fallopian tubes in the woman’s body were named.  In his writings dated 1564, Fallopio described having invented a sheath for the penis that is made of linen and treated with salt solution or herbs.  It was said this sheath did much in preventing the further spread of syphilis, a sexually transmitted disease, during the time.

Apparently, the sheath designed by Fallopio picked up in later years.  One of the people said to have been influential in spreading the word about the use of condoms in the 1600s was none other than the British King Charles II.  Legend has it that Charles II commissioned one of his men, in some accounts named Dr. Condom and in others as the Earl of Condom, to come up with a scheme that will prevent the king from acquiring sexually transmitted diseases and from fathering illegitimate children.  The solution that this Dr. Condom or Earl of Condom came up with was a sheath made from animal intestine.  It is still being contested whether the condom is named after one such actual person or is merely taken from the Latin word “condun,” which means to protect.

Anyhow, it was said that the condom was not effective for Charles II, but that was mainly because the condoms he had used were not washed despite repeated uses.  Interestingly, the oldest condoms ever found came from his time, 1640.  These condom artefacts were said to have belonged to Royalist forces who backed them king in his conflict with Oliver Cromwell.

The turning point in the development of the modern condom came in 1839, when Charles Goodyear discovered the process of vulcanisation, which made rubber for elastic and durable.  This allowed for the mass production of rubber condoms with seams at the sides beginning 1844.

A further stage in the development of the modern condom is attributed to Julius Fromm, who devised a way of manufacturing condoms using glass moulds in 1912.  These glass moulds were repeatedly dipped in the raw rubber solution and then dried using blasts of hot air.  The force of water then removed the sheath formed from the dipping around the mould.  The resulting products were thinner, more elastic and did not have seams at the sides.  Also, they were to be used only once.

Today, condoms come in latex and even in plastic.  Condoms remain important with regards to sexual hygiene and contraception; they are still among the most effective means of preventing the spread of sexually transmitted diseases, not to mention contraception.

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Fireworks and firecrackers are always associated with positive occasions in life. It is associated with joy, victory, happiness and celebrations. Witnessing the colorful and iridescent burst of fireworks is a joy in itself. It creates a lively atmosphere. It sets the sparks of happiness and fun flying in our hearts and minds.
It is widely accepted that the use of fireworks originated in China. It is believed that the Chinese had introduced its manufacturing almost 2,000 years ago, hence, there’s no particular person given credit for its invention. Fireworks, it is said, was invented accidentally by an unnamed Chinese Cook who somehow managed to create a mixture of charcoal, sulphur and saltpeter. When he stuffed the mixture in a bamboo tube, an explosion occurred, and that was how fireworks or firecrackers were invented.
Another source gives credit to the Indians for inventing fireworks. Also because, Indians are the most enthusiastic in bursting firecrackers in most occasions, be it a wedding, a religious festival or if the national team wins a cricket match. Overlook the enthusiasm of the Indians for fireworks and the Chinese takes away all the glory. The Chinese people are so dedicated to this art that they celebrate its invention every year on April 18 and offer sacrifices to Li Tian, a monk who is credited for its invention.
Fireworks in both Indian and Chinese civilization are regarded effective in warding off evil spirits, darkness and despair. Both cultures use fireworks extensively in birthdays, marriages and festivals. China is also the world’s largest manufacturer of fireworks and the Liu Yang region is famous for its production. The British are not that far behind in the use of fireworks as well. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, she had created a position for Fire Master and King James II, fascinated with the display of fireworks had knighted the fire master. Not even the Americans were untouched by the glamour of fireworks and imported it in large quantities from China for national consumption.
There is an amazing assortment of fireworks available in the market today. The popular ones are Aerials, Firecrackers, Fountains, Cones, Helicopters, Planes and Parachutes, Rockets and Missiles, Sparklers, Wheel, Spinners and Jacks; however, the list is endless depending upon the imagination of the designer. With the advent of the computer age fireworks display has gone hi-tech where launch and bursts are synchronized with music for the entertainment of the public. This is usually witnessed in opening and closing ceremonies of international games, New Year events and other important occasions.
There are many chemicals used in the manufacturing of fireworks like Aluminum, Barium, Carbon, Calcium, Chlorine, Copper, Iron, Potassium, Lithium, Magnesium, Sodium, Oxidizers, Phosphorus, Zinc among others. Aluminum is chiefly used in sparklers for silvery white sparkles and flames while Barium is used to create a green color. Carbon works as a propellant and copper emits a blue color to the fireworks. Each chemical plays an important part in the reaction and the desired effect and movement is produced according to the proportion of the chemicals and the shape and design of the firework.
However, there are safety hazards in the use of fireworks, too, and it should be carried out in a controlled environment with proper precautions. History is a sad reminder of the dangers that fireworks can create. A public fireworks display on the occasion of King Louis XVI marriage to Antoinette created a stampede resulting in the tragic deaths of 800 people in May 16, 1770. There are a few precautions that one should take while enjoying fireworks.
•    Children’s should never be allowed to handle fireworks.
•    One should keep a safe distance from the fireworks.
•    Don’t gaze over the firework while lighting it. It may cause permanent damage to your eyes.
•    Avoid high-decibel generating firecrackers; it may damage your ears.
•    Light fireworks in an open area

Today the manufacturing and design of fireworks have developed into a form of art and science. It is known as pyrotechnics and is the study of the chemical and physical reactions that occurs when a firework is ignited. Still in its nascent stage, the science is gradually gaining popularity and associations like the Pyrotechnics Guild International Inc. enroll amateurs and professionals fireworks enthusiasts to learn new pyro techniques and develop their own mixtures.
Fireworks manufacturing goes through a stringent process of safety regulation before it is finally brought to the market. And manufacturers have to pass safety standards and legal procedures that depend upon government regulation in different countries. Compared to other countries, for example India and China, the United States has far stricter rules, regulations and standards for the manufacture of fireworks. However, there’s bad news for fireworks enthusiasts in the US, because the state and federal authorities are trying to ban consumer fireworks and rocketry indefinitely in the country. This would result in a serious setback to firework companies and followers of the art of Pyrotechnics all over the world.

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